NOT gates

The NOT gate has a single input and one output.

The little bubble on the output indicates that the output goes LOW when the input goes HIGH.

We can say that the output goes LOW when the input is ACTIVATED.

The opposite happens when the input is LOW. The output goes HIGH.

The TRUTH TABLE shows that the output is the opposite of the input.

The NOT gate is also called an INVERTER. It inverts the input.
_
The Boolean expression is A = Z

Which is read as, NOT A EQUALS Z

or IF A IS LOW THEN Z IS HIGH

or BAR A = Z

NOT gates

The NOT gate has a single input and one output.

The little bubble on the output indicates that the output goes LOW when the input goes HIGH.

We can say that the output goes LOW when the input is ACTIVATED.

The opposite happens when the input is LOW. The output goes HIGH.

The TRUTH TABLE shows that the output is the opposite of the input.

The NOT gate is also called an INVERTER. It inverts the input.
_
The Boolean expression is A = Z

Which is read as, NOT A EQUALS Z

or IF A IS LOW THEN Z IS HIGH

or BAR A = Z

OR gates

The OR gate has two or more inputs and one output.

The output voltage goes high only when one or more input voltages are high.

In the switch diagram the lamp lights up when A OR B (or both) are operated.

In the truth table Z = 1 when A or B = 1.

The Boolean expression is A+B = Z which translated says, A or B high makes Z high.

The plus sign + translates as OR.

 

OR gates

The OR gate has two or more inputs and one output.

The output voltage goes high only when one or more input voltages are high.

In the switch diagram the lamp lights up when A OR B (or both) are operated.

In the truth table Z = 1 when A or B = 1.

The Boolean expression is A+B = Z which translated says, A or B high makes Z high.

The plus sign + translates as OR.

 

AND Gates

The AND gate has two or more inputs and one output.

The output voltage goes high only when all input voltages are high.

In the switch diagram the lamp lights up only when A and B are operated. If only one is switched then the lamp stays off.

In the truth table Z = 1 only when A and B = 1

The Boolean expression is A. B = Z which translated says, A and B both high, makes Z high.

 

AND Gates

The AND gate has two or more inputs and one output.

The output voltage goes high only when all input voltages are high.

In the switch diagram the lamp lights up only when A and B are operated. If only one is switched then the lamp stays off.

In the truth table Z = 1 only when A and B = 1

The Boolean expression is A. B = Z which translated says, A and B both high, makes Z high.

 

Binary

In 1854, a central paper on binary systems was published by the mathematician George Boole. This paper laid out the groundwork for what would eventually be called Boolean algebra. With the advent of electronics, binary systems suddenly made incredible sense. Most electronic systems function on a switch-based system, with current either running or not running. In 1937, Claude Shannon set out the foundations for the theory of circuit design using binary arithmetic. In 1940, the age of binary computing began with the release of Bell Labs Complex Number Computer, which was able to perform extremely complex mathematical calculations using a binary system.
Binary numbers (1 or 0) represent on(1) or off(0).

Typically you work out binary like this:

256 128 64 32 16 8 4 2 1

If you have say a decimal number of 254, to work out the binary code you would use the system above to work it out. So,

256 128 64 32 16 8 4 2 1

0 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 0

The number that was given (254) is equated in the system above if you were to add up the numbers that have 1s underneath them.From there you can learn to translate binary into decimal, decimal into hexidecimal (not using binary,because hex is a whole other language base) which then goes onto C++ programming and all the rest.

If you're working out bigger numbers, for instance 3813, then you need to create a bigger system in order to work out the binary code so therefore you need to do this:

2048 1024 512 256 128 64 32 16 8 4 2 1

1 1 1 0 1 1 1 0 0 1 0 1

So this is your Binary Code for 3813:

1 1 1 0 1 1 1 0 0 1 0 1

If you want to be lazy you can just use your calculator on your computer. You need to switch the view to scientific which calculates binary, decimal, hex and octal. I suggest you make sure you understand binary code first before moving onto hex because the development between them can become very confusing.

Binary

In 1854, a central paper on binary systems was published by the mathematician George Boole. This paper laid out the groundwork for what would eventually be called Boolean algebra. With the advent of electronics, binary systems suddenly made incredible sense. Most electronic systems function on a switch-based system, with current either running or not running. In 1937, Claude Shannon set out the foundations for the theory of circuit design using binary arithmetic. In 1940, the age of binary computing began with the release of Bell Labs Complex Number Computer, which was able to perform extremely complex mathematical calculations using a binary system.
Binary numbers (1 or 0) represent on(1) or off(0).

Typically you work out binary like this:

256 128 64 32 16 8 4 2 1

If you have say a decimal number of 254, to work out the binary code you would use the system above to work it out. So,

256 128 64 32 16 8 4 2 1

0 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 0

The number that was given (254) is equated in the system above if you were to add up the numbers that have 1s underneath them.From there you can learn to translate binary into decimal, decimal into hexidecimal (not using binary,because hex is a whole other language base) which then goes onto C++ programming and all the rest.

If you're working out bigger numbers, for instance 3813, then you need to create a bigger system in order to work out the binary code so therefore you need to do this:

2048 1024 512 256 128 64 32 16 8 4 2 1

1 1 1 0 1 1 1 0 0 1 0 1

So this is your Binary Code for 3813:

1 1 1 0 1 1 1 0 0 1 0 1

If you want to be lazy you can just use your calculator on your computer. You need to switch the view to scientific which calculates binary, decimal, hex and octal. I suggest you make sure you understand binary code first before moving onto hex because the development between them can become very confusing.

Sound Effects Generator

Description:
This circuit uses a UM3561 IC to produce four different sound effects.

Notes:
Nothing too complicated here. The IC produces all the sound effects, the output at Pin 3 being amplified by the transistor. A 64 ohm loudspeaker can be substituted in place of the 56 ohm resistor and 8 ohm loudspeaker. The 2 pole 4 way switch controls the sound effects. Position 1 (as drawn) being a Police siren, position 2 is a fire engine sound, 3 is an ambulance and position 4 is a machine gun effect. The IC is manufactured by UMC and was available from Maplin electronics code UJ45Y. At the time of writing this has now been discontinued, but they have have limited stocks available.

Sound Effects Generator

Description:
This circuit uses a UM3561 IC to produce four different sound effects.

Notes:
Nothing too complicated here. The IC produces all the sound effects, the output at Pin 3 being amplified by the transistor. A 64 ohm loudspeaker can be substituted in place of the 56 ohm resistor and 8 ohm loudspeaker. The 2 pole 4 way switch controls the sound effects. Position 1 (as drawn) being a Police siren, position 2 is a fire engine sound, 3 is an ambulance and position 4 is a machine gun effect. The IC is manufactured by UMC and was available from Maplin electronics code UJ45Y. At the time of writing this has now been discontinued, but they have have limited stocks available.

24 Hour Timer Circuit

Circuit : Thelurunk
Description:
These two circuits are multi-range timers offering periods of up to 24 hours and beyond. Both are essentially the same. The main difference is that when the time runs out, Version 1 energizes the relay and Version 2 de-energizes it. The first uses less power while the timer is running; and the second uses less power after the timer stops. Pick the one that best suits your application.

 

 

The Cmos 4060 is a 14 bit binary counter with a built in oscillator. The oscillator consists of the two inverters connected to Pins 9, 10 & 11; and its frequency is set by R3, R4 & C3. The green Led flashes while the oscillator is running: and the IC counts the number of oscillations. Although it's a 14 bit counter, not all of the bits are accessible. Those that can be reached are shown on the drawing.

By adjusting the frequency of the oscillator you can set the length of time it takes for any given output to go high. This output then switches the transistor; which in turn operates the relay. At the same time, D1 stops the count by disabling the oscillator. Ideally C3 should be non-polarized; but a regular electrolytic will work, provided it doesn't leak too badly in the reverse direction. Alternatively, you can simulate a non-polarized 10uF capacitor by connecting two 22uF capacitors back to back (as shown).

Using "Trial and Error" to set a long time period would be very tedious. A better solution is to use the Setup tables provided; and calculate the time required for Pin 7 to go high. The Setup tables on both schematics are interchangeable. They're just two different ways of expressing the same equation.

For example, if you want a period of 9 Hours, the Range table shows that you can use the output at Pin 2. You need Pin 2 to go high after 9 x 60 x 60 = 32 400 seconds. The Setup table tells you to divide this by 512; giving about 63 seconds. Adjust R4 so that the Yellow LED lights 63 seconds after power is applied. This will give an output at Pin 2 after about 9 Hours. A suitable Veroboard layout for each version is shown below:
 

24 Hour Timer Circuit

Circuit : Thelurunk
Description:
These two circuits are multi-range timers offering periods of up to 24 hours and beyond. Both are essentially the same. The main difference is that when the time runs out, Version 1 energizes the relay and Version 2 de-energizes it. The first uses less power while the timer is running; and the second uses less power after the timer stops. Pick the one that best suits your application.

 

 

The Cmos 4060 is a 14 bit binary counter with a built in oscillator. The oscillator consists of the two inverters connected to Pins 9, 10 & 11; and its frequency is set by R3, R4 & C3. The green Led flashes while the oscillator is running: and the IC counts the number of oscillations. Although it's a 14 bit counter, not all of the bits are accessible. Those that can be reached are shown on the drawing.

By adjusting the frequency of the oscillator you can set the length of time it takes for any given output to go high. This output then switches the transistor; which in turn operates the relay. At the same time, D1 stops the count by disabling the oscillator. Ideally C3 should be non-polarized; but a regular electrolytic will work, provided it doesn't leak too badly in the reverse direction. Alternatively, you can simulate a non-polarized 10uF capacitor by connecting two 22uF capacitors back to back (as shown).

Using "Trial and Error" to set a long time period would be very tedious. A better solution is to use the Setup tables provided; and calculate the time required for Pin 7 to go high. The Setup tables on both schematics are interchangeable. They're just two different ways of expressing the same equation.

For example, if you want a period of 9 Hours, the Range table shows that you can use the output at Pin 2. You need Pin 2 to go high after 9 x 60 x 60 = 32 400 seconds. The Setup table tells you to divide this by 512; giving about 63 seconds. Adjust R4 so that the Yellow LED lights 63 seconds after power is applied. This will give an output at Pin 2 after about 9 Hours. A suitable Veroboard layout for each version is shown below:
 

How to make Electronic Siren Circuit

The sound produced imitates the rise and fall of an American police siren. When first switched on the 10u capacitors is discharged and both transistors are off. When the push button switch is pressed to 10u capacitor will charge via the 22k resistor. This voltage is applied to the base of the BC108B which will turn on slowly. When the switch is released the capacitor will discharge via the 100k and 47k base resistors and the transistor will slowly turn off. The change in voltage alters the frequency of the siren. The oscillator action is more difficult to work out. As the BC108B transistor switches on its collector voltage falls and so the 2N3702 transistor is switched on. This happens very quickly ( less than 1us). The 22n capacitor will charge very quickly as well. As this capacitor is connected between the collector of the 2N3702 and the base of the BC108B, it soon reaches almost full supply voltage. The charging current for the capacitor is then much reduced and the collector emitter voltage of the 2N3072 is therefore increased; the collector potential will fall. This change in voltage is passed through the 22n capacitor to the base of the BC108B causing it to come out of saturation slightly. As this happens its collector voltage will rise and turn off the 2N3072 transistor more. This continues until both transistors are off. The 22n capacitor will then discharge via the 100k, 22k resistor, the closed push button switch, 9V battery, the speaker and 56 ohm resistor. The discharge time takes around 5-6msec. As soon as the 22n capacitor is discharged, the BC108B transistor will switch on again and the cycle repeats. The difference in voltage at the collector of the BC108B (caused by the charging 10u capacitor) causes the tone of the siren to change. As the 10u capacitor is charged, the tone of the siren will rise, and as it is discharged, it will fall. A 64 ohm loudspeaker may be used in place of the 8 ohm and 56 resistor, and the values of components may be altered to produce different sound effects.

How to make Electronic Siren Circuit

The sound produced imitates the rise and fall of an American police siren. When first switched on the 10u capacitors is discharged and both transistors are off. When the push button switch is pressed to 10u capacitor will charge via the 22k resistor. This voltage is applied to the base of the BC108B which will turn on slowly. When the switch is released the capacitor will discharge via the 100k and 47k base resistors and the transistor will slowly turn off. The change in voltage alters the frequency of the siren. The oscillator action is more difficult to work out. As the BC108B transistor switches on its collector voltage falls and so the 2N3702 transistor is switched on. This happens very quickly ( less than 1us). The 22n capacitor will charge very quickly as well. As this capacitor is connected between the collector of the 2N3702 and the base of the BC108B, it soon reaches almost full supply voltage. The charging current for the capacitor is then much reduced and the collector emitter voltage of the 2N3072 is therefore increased; the collector potential will fall. This change in voltage is passed through the 22n capacitor to the base of the BC108B causing it to come out of saturation slightly. As this happens its collector voltage will rise and turn off the 2N3072 transistor more. This continues until both transistors are off. The 22n capacitor will then discharge via the 100k, 22k resistor, the closed push button switch, 9V battery, the speaker and 56 ohm resistor. The discharge time takes around 5-6msec. As soon as the 22n capacitor is discharged, the BC108B transistor will switch on again and the cycle repeats. The difference in voltage at the collector of the BC108B (caused by the charging 10u capacitor) causes the tone of the siren to change. As the 10u capacitor is charged, the tone of the siren will rise, and as it is discharged, it will fall. A 64 ohm loudspeaker may be used in place of the 8 ohm and 56 resistor, and the values of components may be altered to produce different sound effects.

About Zener Diode

The Zener diode is operated in reverse bias mode (positive on its cathode).
It relies on the reverse breakdown voltage occurring at a specified value.
This value is printed on it.

It has two main applications.

1. as a reference source, where the voltage across it is compared with another voltage.

2. as a voltage regulator, smoothing out any voltages variations occurring in the supply voltage across the load.

When being used a voltage regulator, if the voltage across the load tries to rise then the Zener takes more current.
The increase in current through the resistor causes an increase in voltage dropped across the resistor.
This increase in voltage across the resistor causes the voltage across the load to remain at its correct value.

In a similar manner, if the voltage across the load tries to fall, then the Zener takes less current.
The current through the resistor and the voltage across the resistor both fall.
The voltage across the load remains at its correct value.

About Zener Diode

The Zener diode is operated in reverse bias mode (positive on its cathode).
It relies on the reverse breakdown voltage occurring at a specified value.
This value is printed on it.

It has two main applications.

1. as a reference source, where the voltage across it is compared with another voltage.

2. as a voltage regulator, smoothing out any voltages variations occurring in the supply voltage across the load.

When being used a voltage regulator, if the voltage across the load tries to rise then the Zener takes more current.
The increase in current through the resistor causes an increase in voltage dropped across the resistor.
This increase in voltage across the resistor causes the voltage across the load to remain at its correct value.

In a similar manner, if the voltage across the load tries to fall, then the Zener takes less current.
The current through the resistor and the voltage across the resistor both fall.
The voltage across the load remains at its correct value.

Series Parallel Batteries

Series Parallel Batteries

Resistors in Parallel

Resistors in parallel are connected across one another.
They all have the same voltage across them.

To find the equivalent resistance (the total resistance offered to the flow of current) we invert the values and add them. Then we invert the result.

For example take 2 ohms and 4 ohms in parallel.

Inverted 1/2 +1/4 = 3/4

Invert this 4/3 = 1.33 ohms

A quick check on your answer is that it should be smaller in value than the value of the smallest resistor.

If these resistors were connected across a 10 volt supply Ohms Law says about 7.5 amps would flow.

The formula can be written as 1/Rtotal = 1/R1 + 1/R2 + 1/R3 etc etc.

If only two resistors are involved then use (R1 x R2) divided by (R1 + R2)
For the 2 ohms and 4 ohms.
R1 x R2 = 8.
R1 + R2 = 6.
8/6 = 1.33 ohms

If you have several resistors of the same value in parallel then the equivalent resistance is the resistor value divided by the number of resistors.
For example, four 100 ohm resistors in parallel will provide a resistance of 25 ohms

Resistors in Parallel

Resistors in parallel are connected across one another.
They all have the same voltage across them.

To find the equivalent resistance (the total resistance offered to the flow of current) we invert the values and add them. Then we invert the result.

For example take 2 ohms and 4 ohms in parallel.

Inverted 1/2 +1/4 = 3/4

Invert this 4/3 = 1.33 ohms

A quick check on your answer is that it should be smaller in value than the value of the smallest resistor.

If these resistors were connected across a 10 volt supply Ohms Law says about 7.5 amps would flow.

The formula can be written as 1/Rtotal = 1/R1 + 1/R2 + 1/R3 etc etc.

If only two resistors are involved then use (R1 x R2) divided by (R1 + R2)
For the 2 ohms and 4 ohms.
R1 x R2 = 8.
R1 + R2 = 6.
8/6 = 1.33 ohms

If you have several resistors of the same value in parallel then the equivalent resistance is the resistor value divided by the number of resistors.
For example, four 100 ohm resistors in parallel will provide a resistance of 25 ohms

How to make Resistors in Series

Resistors in series are connected in line.

The same current flows through them all.

The total opposition to the flow of current is called the EQUIVALENT resistance.
To find the value of the equivalent resistance we simply add the values.
In this case it is 30 ohms.

Note that, as a quick check on calculations, the value of the equivalent resistance is always higher than the value of the highest value resistance.

If these resistors were connected across a 30 Volt battery then Ohms Law says 1 amp would flow.

How to make Resistors in Series

Resistors in series are connected in line.

The same current flows through them all.

The total opposition to the flow of current is called the EQUIVALENT resistance.
To find the value of the equivalent resistance we simply add the values.
In this case it is 30 ohms.

Note that, as a quick check on calculations, the value of the equivalent resistance is always higher than the value of the highest value resistance.

If these resistors were connected across a 30 Volt battery then Ohms Law says 1 amp would flow.

Electric Current

An electric current is a flow of microscopic particles called ELECTRONS flowing through wires and electronic components.
It can be likened to the flow of water through pipes and radiators etc.
As water is pushed through pipes by a pump, electric current is pushed through wires by a battery.
Hot water does work by heating radiators.
Electric current does work by heating fires, lighting lamps, ringing bells, electroplating etc.

A basic law of the universe is that like charges repel and unlike attract. Two negatives will repel each other. A negative and a positive will attract each other.
An electron has a negative charge.
The negative (-ve) terminal of a battery will push negative electrons along a wire.
The positive (+ve) terminal of a battery will attract negative electrons along a wire.

Electric current will therefore flow from the -ve terminal of a battery, through the lamp, to the positive terminal.

This is called electron current flow.

The current flows round the circuit.

In some books current is said to flow from +ve to -ve. This was guessed at before the electron was discovered. They guessed wrong! This is called conventional current flow.

Electric Current

An electric current is a flow of microscopic particles called ELECTRONS flowing through wires and electronic components.
It can be likened to the flow of water through pipes and radiators etc.
As water is pushed through pipes by a pump, electric current is pushed through wires by a battery.
Hot water does work by heating radiators.
Electric current does work by heating fires, lighting lamps, ringing bells, electroplating etc.

A basic law of the universe is that like charges repel and unlike attract. Two negatives will repel each other. A negative and a positive will attract each other.
An electron has a negative charge.
The negative (-ve) terminal of a battery will push negative electrons along a wire.
The positive (+ve) terminal of a battery will attract negative electrons along a wire.

Electric current will therefore flow from the -ve terminal of a battery, through the lamp, to the positive terminal.

This is called electron current flow.

The current flows round the circuit.

In some books current is said to flow from +ve to -ve. This was guessed at before the electron was discovered. They guessed wrong! This is called conventional current flow.

Welcome

THIS ELECTRONICS TUTORIALS SITE

This site  offered Thelurunk are FREE to you and are extremely comprehensive with over 120 individual electronics tutorials topics covering a very wide range of electronics. It will always continue to expand so come back often. This page will give you a good broad overview of this very comprehensive electronics tutorials site.
NAVIGATING THIS SITE

So you don't become confused, this site is largely set up on a basis of "directories". On the left hand side are "clickable" navigation links which take you to things like basic electronics, antennas, amplifiers, data sheets, downloads, filters, oscillators and receivers etc. Each directory has its own navigation bars to different topics under that general heading. Also each topic has at the end, and indeed often throughout the topic, related topic links. It's that easy. If you haven't already done so, I suggest you right click your mouse now and "create a short cut" for your desktop or bookmark this site.(thelurunk)

Welcome

THIS ELECTRONICS TUTORIALS SITE

This site  offered Thelurunk are FREE to you and are extremely comprehensive with over 120 individual electronics tutorials topics covering a very wide range of electronics. It will always continue to expand so come back often. This page will give you a good broad overview of this very comprehensive electronics tutorials site.
NAVIGATING THIS SITE

So you don't become confused, this site is largely set up on a basis of "directories". On the left hand side are "clickable" navigation links which take you to things like basic electronics, antennas, amplifiers, data sheets, downloads, filters, oscillators and receivers etc. Each directory has its own navigation bars to different topics under that general heading. Also each topic has at the end, and indeed often throughout the topic, related topic links. It's that easy. If you haven't already done so, I suggest you right click your mouse now and "create a short cut" for your desktop or bookmark this site.(thelurunk)

10V Switching Regulator Using LM5007

10V Switching Regulator Using LM5007 Circuit DiagramDescription.The circuit diagram shown here is of a 10V switching regulator based on the LM5007 from National Semiconductors. The LM5007 is an integrated step down switching regulator which has all necessary systems required for making a cost effective and reliable switching regulator circuit. The IC is available in MSOP-8, LLp-8 packages and has

PCM2702 USB Sound Card Circuit

PCM2702 USB Sound Card Circuit DiagramDesigning and architecture a USB complete agenda is no best a arch anguish because we accept got the PCM 2702 chip ambit from Texas Instruments. The PCM2702 is an chip 16 bit agenda to analog advocate that has two agenda to analog achievement channels. The chip interface ambassador of PCM2702 is adjustable to the USB 1.0 standards. The IC can handle

Simple Creative USB Circuit Lamp Design

Simple USB Circuit Lamp DesignThis schematic atramentous and white blush architecture pictures is a simple USB powered lamp ambit diagram which can be acclimated to ablaze your PC (personal computer) during ability failures. The ambit diagram operates from the 5 Volt attainable from the desktop USB port. The 5Volt from the USB anchorage is anesthetized with absolute attached resistor R2

Low Cost Am Direct Coupled Radio Circuit Diagram

Low Cost Am Radio Circuit DiagramThis afterward schematics ambit diagram of a ablaze absolute accompanying radio ideal for alert to adjacent stations. The electric ambit absolute accompanying radio diagram uses Q1 basic as a diode detector and aboriginal audio amplifier. The apprehension is angular the aboriginal emitter abject alliance which operates as a diode. The absolute accompanying

UA78G/UA79G Variable Power Supply Circuit Diagram

UA78G/UA79G Variable Power Supply Circuit SchematicA abiding capricious ability accumulation with an adjustable achievement voltage from 5 volts to 30 volts can be calmly complete with the regulator ICs UA78G or UA79G. These ICs alter from the accepted three-terminal regulator back their achievement voltages are adjustable by a voltage akin at their ascendancy inputs. The best accepted delivered

LM723 Peak Level Indicator Circuit

LM723 Peak Level Indicator CircuitThis circuit is a circuit diagram inspection signal sound level or Peak Level Indicator circuit using LM723. Usually we are often led IC LM723 or UA723 do come to use, the DC voltage regulator. But for this circuit, building a circuit can check the sound level signal. When I saw changes in the structure of integrated circuits. The following is a

LM56 Thermostat Project Circuit Diagram

LM56 Thermostat Project CircuitThis electronic circuit thermostat using IC LM56 diagram which simple project you can use as reference guide. As you know, IC LM56 is especially accurate dual output low power thermostat characterize by National Semiconductors. 2 stable temperature trip points called VT1 and VT2 are made with dividing the IC LM56 1.250Volt internal voltage reference by three

Electronic FM Telephone Transmitter Circuit

Electronic FM Telephone Transmitter SchematicThe following schematics design pictures is a circuit diagram FM telephone transmitter that built on a PC board layout which is so small it can simply be fitted within the housing of a telephone creating it an instant pseudo-speak earphone. This circuit diagram FM telephone transmitter components connects in series with telephone line, steals power

LOW-COST HEARING AID Schematic

Skema Rangkaian LOW-COST HEARING AID SchematicCommercially available hearing aids are quite costly. Here is an inexpensive hearing aid circuit that uses just four transistors and a few passive components. On moving power switch S to ‘on’ position, the condenser microphone detects the sound signal, which is amplified by transistors T1 and T2. Now the amplified signal passes through coupling

Long Range FM Transmitter Circuit

Long Range FM transmitter CircuitThe power output of most of these circuits are very low because no power amplifier stages were incorporated. The transmitter circuit described here has an extra RF power amplifier stage, after the oscillator stage, to raise the power output to 200-250 milliwatts. With a good matching 50-ohm ground plane antenna or multi-element Yagi antenna, this

LT1300 Solar Powered Power Supply

LT1300 Solar Powered Power Supply CircuitThis architecture was generated as allotment of a alien acclimate base project. One of the requirements of the architecture is that it accept a solar-powered accumulation with rechargeable batteries. This architecture is based on a photovoltaic arrangement accessible from Radio Shack alleged a BatterySAVER (part cardinal 980-1045). It was advised

NE555 Rain Alarm Circuit

NE555 Rain Alarm CircuitThis circuit gives out an alarm when its sensor is wetted by water. A 555 astable multivibrator is used here which gives a tone of about 1kHz upon detecting water. The sensor when wetted by water completes the circuit and makes the 555 oscillate at about 1kHz.The sensor is also shown in the circuit diagram. It has to placed making an angle of about 30 - 45

LM35 Smart Heater Controller Project

LM35 Smart Heater Controller SchematicMinuscule circuit of the electronic heater controller presented here is built around the renowned 3-Pin Integrated Temperature Sensor LM35 (IC1) from NSC. Besides, a popular BiMos Op-amp CA3140 (IC2) is used to sense the status of the temperature sensor IC1, which also controls a solid-state switch formed by a high power Triac BT136(T1). Resistive type

18 W TDA2030A Chip Hi-Fi Class AB Power Amplifier

This chip amplifier NCH TDA2030A company ST Microelectronics enjoys well-deserved popularity among radio amateurs. It has a high electrical performance and low cost, which allows for the least cost to collect her high UNCH capacity of up to 18 Watts. But not everyone is aware of its hidden virtues: it turns out at the IMS can collect a number of other useful devices. TDA2030A chip is a 18 W

Flashing Neon Circuit diagram

This circuit will be a fantastic circuit for Vehicle lovers Because this circuit can up grade the out look of your Vehicle. This circuit is nothing but a Flashing Neon circuit diagram.This circuit can be operated with 90V.You can change the frequency of this circuit by changing the values of C and R.Large values reduce frequency of this circuit.







Note

# Use Ne 2 or Ne 51

# This circuit can be operated with 90v

LiteSpeed Load Balancer

LiteSpeed Load Balancer (LSLB) is a high-performance, content-aware, session-aware HTTP application load balancer. It can forward requests based on request content as well as session stickiness preference. LiteSpeed Load Balancer can help scale your application beyond one server deployment, as well as improve the reliability of your service in case of hardware failures.

We offer 15-day risk free trials and a 30-day money back guarantee.

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Supports HTTP, LiteSpeed SAPI, FastCGI and AJPv13 back ends

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Directing request based on domain names, request URL, Cookie, SSL Session, etc.

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Dynamic response compression/decompression (gzip)

Gzip compression with backend HTTP Server

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Massive shared hosting: load balance to millions of websites

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Online upgrade to keep your server up-to-date

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LiteSpeed load balancer is designed to be a secure load balancer. With chroot jail, IP level bandwidth throttling, connection accounting, strict HTTP request checking, and URL context filtering, DoS effects are minimized and backend cluster is properly fenced away from the HTTP request layer reducing vulnerability.

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Chroot whole server process

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Graceful shutdown, all requests in process will be completed.

Runs completely in the user space, OS reliability is not affected

The following section provides a brief overview of the above security features. Access Control: Server, virtual host and directory (context) level access control which can allow or block traffic from specific IP/sub-networks. IP Level Throttling Limits network bandwidth to and from a single IP address regardless of the number of connections. IP Level Connection Accounting Limits the number of concurrent connections from a single IP address. It is controlled by the Connection Soft Limit, Connection Hard Limit, Grace Period, and Banned Period values. Strict Request Checking Every HTTP request is strictly checked by LiteSpeed load balancer:

Request size is limited by the Max Request URL Length, Max Request Header Length, and Max Request Body Length values. Strict Static File Checking LiteSpeed web server will serve a static file only if the following conditions are satisfied:

"/.ht*" and "/.svn*" are not allowed in a decoded URL, this will deny accessing some important hidden files and directories.

the file permission must contain configured required permission bits.

the file permission must not contain any configured restricted permission bits.

The file is not in the Access Denied Directory list

does not contain symbolic links if symbolic linking is not allowed.

LiteSpeed load balancer does not index a directory by listing its files.

LiteSpeed load balancer can pipeline requests and control the concurrency level of external applications to prevent over consumption of system resources. It only forwards completed requests to external applications and caches the response. Thus external applications will be immediately available to process the next request without waiting for the response to be completely received by the client. In this way, the server can utilize fewer instances of external applications to serve more concurrent requests and will achieve higher performance and scalability. LiteSpeed load balancer uses its own virtual memory to cache the request and response body to minimize the usage of system memory without sacrificing performance.

Chroot Jail

LiteSpeed load balancer can run in a chroot environment also known as a chroot jail with an automatic initial chroot environment setup. In a chrooted environment, the load balancer and its children processes cannot access the file system outside of the chroot jail. This protects the system from attacks caused by malicious code.

LiteSpeed Load Balancer

LiteSpeed Load Balancer (LSLB) is a high-performance, content-aware, session-aware HTTP application load balancer. It can forward requests based on request content as well as session stickiness preference. LiteSpeed Load Balancer can help scale your application beyond one server deployment, as well as improve the reliability of your service in case of hardware failures.

We offer 15-day risk free trials and a 30-day money back guarantee.

Features

HTTP/1.1, HTTP/1.0 backward compatible

Supports HTTP, LiteSpeed SAPI, FastCGI and AJPv13 back ends

Load balance algorithms: round-robin, least load, least session

Session affinity with fail-over

Directing request based on domain names, request URL, Cookie, SSL Session, etc.

Content aware: route request based on request content

Dynamic response compression/decompression (gzip)

Gzip compression with backend HTTP Server

Automatic HTTP protocol upgrade/downgrade to maintain persistent connection with backend servers

Massive shared hosting: load balance to millions of websites

URL rewrite

SSL acceleration

Geotargeting support

IPv6 support

Anti-(D)DoS attacks capability

Request filtering (HTTP firewall), filter attacking requests based on request content

Chroot for enhanced security

Backend server health monitoring

Web administration console

Online upgrade to keep your server up-to-date

Security

LiteSpeed load balancer is designed to be a secure load balancer. With chroot jail, IP level bandwidth throttling, connection accounting, strict HTTP request checking, and URL context filtering, DoS effects are minimized and backend cluster is properly fenced away from the HTTP request layer reducing vulnerability.

High performance Secure HTTP (HTTPS): supports SSLv2, SSLv3 and TLSv1

IP level throttling (Bandwidth and Request Rate)

Comprehensive IP level connection accounting

Hotlink protection

Strict HTTP request checking

External application firewall for dynamic content

Chroot whole server process

Reliability

Zero downtime maintanance (include reconfiguration, software upgrade)

Watch dog and Instant recovery maximizes up-time

Graceful shutdown, all requests in process will be completed.

Runs completely in the user space, OS reliability is not affected

The following section provides a brief overview of the above security features. Access Control: Server, virtual host and directory (context) level access control which can allow or block traffic from specific IP/sub-networks. IP Level Throttling Limits network bandwidth to and from a single IP address regardless of the number of connections. IP Level Connection Accounting Limits the number of concurrent connections from a single IP address. It is controlled by the Connection Soft Limit, Connection Hard Limit, Grace Period, and Banned Period values. Strict Request Checking Every HTTP request is strictly checked by LiteSpeed load balancer:

Request size is limited by the Max Request URL Length, Max Request Header Length, and Max Request Body Length values. Strict Static File Checking LiteSpeed web server will serve a static file only if the following conditions are satisfied:

"/.ht*" and "/.svn*" are not allowed in a decoded URL, this will deny accessing some important hidden files and directories.

the file permission must contain configured required permission bits.

the file permission must not contain any configured restricted permission bits.

The file is not in the Access Denied Directory list

does not contain symbolic links if symbolic linking is not allowed.

LiteSpeed load balancer does not index a directory by listing its files.

LiteSpeed load balancer can pipeline requests and control the concurrency level of external applications to prevent over consumption of system resources. It only forwards completed requests to external applications and caches the response. Thus external applications will be immediately available to process the next request without waiting for the response to be completely received by the client. In this way, the server can utilize fewer instances of external applications to serve more concurrent requests and will achieve higher performance and scalability. LiteSpeed load balancer uses its own virtual memory to cache the request and response body to minimize the usage of system memory without sacrificing performance.

Chroot Jail

LiteSpeed load balancer can run in a chroot environment also known as a chroot jail with an automatic initial chroot environment setup. In a chrooted environment, the load balancer and its children processes cannot access the file system outside of the chroot jail. This protects the system from attacks caused by malicious code.

History of the Integrated Circuit aka Microchip

D you know Integrated Circuit . What we didn't realize then was that the integrated circuit would reduce the cost of electronic functions by a factor of a million to one, nothing had ever done that for anything before" - Jack Kilby

The Integrated Circuit

It seems that the integrated circuit was destined to be invented. Two separate inventors, unaware of each other's activities, invented almost identical integrated circuits or ICs at nearly the same time.Patents for the Integrated Circuit

In 1959 both parties applied for patents. Jack Kilby and Texas Instruments received U.S. patent #3,138,743 for miniaturized electronic circuits. Robert Noyce and the Fairchild Semiconductor Corporation received U.S. patent #2,981,877 for a silicon based integrated circuit. The two companies wisely decided to cross license their technologies after several years of legal battles, creating a global market now worth about $1 trillion a year.

Commercial Release

In 1961 the first commercially available integrated circuits came from the Fairchild Semiconductor Corporation. All computers then started to be made using chips instead of the individual transistors and their accompanying parts. Texas Instruments first used the chips in Air Force computers and the Minuteman Missile in 1962. They later used the chips to produce the first electronic portable calculators. The original IC had only one transistor, three resistors and one capacitor and was the size of an adult's pinkie finger. Today an IC smaller than a penny can hold 125 million transistors.

Jack Kilby holds patents on over sixty inventions and is also well known as the inventor of the portable calculator (1967). In 1970 he was awarded the National Medal of Science. Robert Noyce, with sixteen patents to his name, founded Intel, the company responsible for the invention of the microprocessor, in 1968. But for both men the invention of the integrated circuit stands historically as one of the most important innovations of mankind. Almost all modern products use chip technology.

3D INTEGRATED CIRCUIT

GLOBAL Semiconductor Alliance says it will increase awareness and visibility worldwide for its 3D integrated circuit initiative.

The GSA has retained semiconductor industry veteran, Herb Reiter to lead the 3D IC initiative. It has also formed relationships with IMEC, ITRI, SEMI, SEMATECH and Si2 to help direct and participate in this effort.

The GSA says it has presented papers and gained awareness for 3D IC at multiple global events, such as DATE 2010 in Dresden, DAC, SemiCon West and the GSA Emerging Opportunities Expo and Conference.

According to the Alliance, the 3D IC initiative will be a major feature of its second annual Memory Conference on 31 March 2011 in San Jose. The theme for the 2011 conference will be “Memory and Logic Integration and the Benefits of 3D IC Technology”.

The Alliance claims 3D IC is a way forward in the face of the challenges of rapidly increasing power dissipation of ICs and systems.

The wireless industry is also pushing for 3D IC stacks to meet the power and space constraints in Mobile Internet Devices, and the technology is expected to help meet next generation bandwidth and performance requirements.

History of the Integrated Circuit aka Microchip

D you know Integrated Circuit . What we didn't realize then was that the integrated circuit would reduce the cost of electronic functions by a factor of a million to one, nothing had ever done that for anything before" - Jack Kilby

The Integrated Circuit

It seems that the integrated circuit was destined to be invented. Two separate inventors, unaware of each other's activities, invented almost identical integrated circuits or ICs at nearly the same time.Patents for the Integrated Circuit

In 1959 both parties applied for patents. Jack Kilby and Texas Instruments received U.S. patent #3,138,743 for miniaturized electronic circuits. Robert Noyce and the Fairchild Semiconductor Corporation received U.S. patent #2,981,877 for a silicon based integrated circuit. The two companies wisely decided to cross license their technologies after several years of legal battles, creating a global market now worth about $1 trillion a year.

Commercial Release

In 1961 the first commercially available integrated circuits came from the Fairchild Semiconductor Corporation. All computers then started to be made using chips instead of the individual transistors and their accompanying parts. Texas Instruments first used the chips in Air Force computers and the Minuteman Missile in 1962. They later used the chips to produce the first electronic portable calculators. The original IC had only one transistor, three resistors and one capacitor and was the size of an adult's pinkie finger. Today an IC smaller than a penny can hold 125 million transistors.

Jack Kilby holds patents on over sixty inventions and is also well known as the inventor of the portable calculator (1967). In 1970 he was awarded the National Medal of Science. Robert Noyce, with sixteen patents to his name, founded Intel, the company responsible for the invention of the microprocessor, in 1968. But for both men the invention of the integrated circuit stands historically as one of the most important innovations of mankind. Almost all modern products use chip technology.

3D INTEGRATED CIRCUIT

GLOBAL Semiconductor Alliance says it will increase awareness and visibility worldwide for its 3D integrated circuit initiative.

The GSA has retained semiconductor industry veteran, Herb Reiter to lead the 3D IC initiative. It has also formed relationships with IMEC, ITRI, SEMI, SEMATECH and Si2 to help direct and participate in this effort.

The GSA says it has presented papers and gained awareness for 3D IC at multiple global events, such as DATE 2010 in Dresden, DAC, SemiCon West and the GSA Emerging Opportunities Expo and Conference.

According to the Alliance, the 3D IC initiative will be a major feature of its second annual Memory Conference on 31 March 2011 in San Jose. The theme for the 2011 conference will be “Memory and Logic Integration and the Benefits of 3D IC Technology”.

The Alliance claims 3D IC is a way forward in the face of the challenges of rapidly increasing power dissipation of ICs and systems.

The wireless industry is also pushing for 3D IC stacks to meet the power and space constraints in Mobile Internet Devices, and the technology is expected to help meet next generation bandwidth and performance requirements.